2.4 The Mughal Empire

In 1526, on the field of Panipat, a Central Asian prince named Babur used cannon and clever tactics to crush the much larger army of Ibrahim Lodi, the last sultan of Delhi. With that victory the Delhi Sultanate ended and a new empire began, the Mughal Empire, which would eventually rule over most of the subcontinent and reshape India’s map more completely than any power before it.

The Founders Babur (ruled 1526–1530) founded the empire. His grandson Akbar (ruled 1556–1605) turned a shaky conquest into a stable, well-governed empire. Later emperors, Jahangir, Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb, expanded and ruled it through the 17th century.

A rocky start, then Akbar

The empire nearly failed. Babur’s son Humayun lost the throne for years to the able Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri, who set up an efficient administration and road network (the Grand Trunk Road) before Humayun recovered Delhi. When Humayun died soon after, his 13-year-old son Akbar inherited a fragile state, and made it great.

How Akbar held an empire together

Akbar understood that conquering land is easy compared with governing it. His genius lay in building systems and winning loyalty.

Mansabdari: A System of Ranks Akbar organised his nobles and officers through the mansabdari system. Each officer (a mansabdar) was given a rank (mansab) that fixed his status, his pay, and the number of soldiers he had to maintain for the emperor. This tied the nobility directly to the state and gave the empire a large, organised army and administration.

Zabt: Measuring the Land for Tax To collect revenue fairly and steadily, Akbar’s administration (guided by his minister Todar Mal) measured farmland and assessed tax based on the crop and the land’s productivity, a system known as zabt. A predictable land tax gave the empire a reliable income, the foundation of its power.

Sulh-i-Kul: “Peace with All” India was home to many religions and communities. Akbar adopted a policy of sulh-i-kul, “peace with all” or universal tolerance, treating subjects of different faiths with respect. He abolished the jizya (a tax on non-Muslims), formed alliances with Rajput rulers, and invited scholars of many religions to debate at his court. He understood that a diverse empire is governed better by inclusion than by force alone.

Think About It Akbar could have ruled purely by the sword. Instead he measured land for fair taxes, ranked his officers, abolished a discriminatory tax, and allied with former enemies. Why might fair systems and tolerance make an empire stronger and longer-lasting than fear alone?

The empire at its peak

Under Akbar and his successors the Mughal Empire became one of the richest and most powerful states in the world. It controlled the great river plains, drew enormous revenue from agriculture and trade, and produced a flowering of art, architecture and literature, the Taj Mahal, built under Shah Jahan, is its most famous monument. Persian remained the court language, and a rich blended culture grew in painting, music, food and dress.

Power Had Two Faces Mughal grandeur rested on heavy taxation of peasants and on constant warfare to expand and defend the empire. Splendid monuments and a wealthy court coexisted with hard lives for many ordinary people. As always, an “empire” looked very different from the palace than from the village.

Let’s Explore Add the Mughals to the timeline strip you started in 2.1. Place Babur (1526), Akbar (1556–1605), Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb in order. Beside Akbar, write the three tools he used to hold the empire together: mansabdari, zabt, sulh-i-kul.

No empire lasts forever. In the next section we ask why the mighty Mughal Empire, after Aurangzeb, began to break apart, and what rose in its place.